Functions of Management

Management is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with and through people and other organizational resources. 

Management has the following 3 characteristics:

1. It is a process or series of continuing and related activities.
2. It involves and concentrates on reaching organizational goals.
3. It reaches these goals by working with and through people and other organizational resources.

MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS:

The 4 basic management functions that make up the management process are described in the following sections:

1. PLANNING
2. ORGANIZING
3. STAFFING
4. DIRECTING
5. CONTROLLING 

PLANNING: Planning involves choosing tasks that must be performed to attain organizational goals, outlining how the tasks must be performed, and indicating when they should be performed.

Planning activity focuses on attaining goals. Managers outline exactly what organizations should do to be successful. Planning is concerned with the success of the organization in the short term as well as in the long term.

ORGANIZING:

Organizing can be thought of as assigning the tasks developed in the planning stages, to various individuals or groups within the organization. Organizing is to create a mechanism to put plans into action.

People within the organization are given work assignments that contribute to the company’s goals. Tasks are organized so that the output of each individual contributes to the success of departments, which, in turn, contributes to the success of divisions, which ultimately contributes to the success of the organization.Organizing as a process involves:

• Identification of activities.
• Classification of grouping of activities.
• Assignment of duties.
• Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
• Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

STAFFING:

It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job.
Staffing involves:

• Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving the right place).
• Recruitment, Selection & Placement.
• Training & Development.
• Remuneration.
• Performance Appraisal.
• Promotions & Transfer.

DIRECTING:

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

• Supervision
• Motivation
• Leadership
• Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.

Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired direction.

Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

CONTROLLING:

Controlling is the following roles played by the manager:

1. Gather information that measures performance
2. Compare present performance to pre established performance norms.
3. Determine the next action plan and modifications for meeting the desired performance parameters.

Principles of Management

Management Principles developed by Henri Fayol: 

1. DIVISION OF WORK: Work should be divided among individuals and groups to ensure  that effort and attention are focused on special portions of the task. Fayol presented work specialization as the best way to use the human resources of the organization.                                                                                                                   
2. AUTHORITY: The concepts of Authority and responsibility are closely related. Authority was defined by Fayol as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Responsibility involves being accountable, and is therefore naturally associated with authority. Whoever assumes authority also assumes responsibility.                                                              
3. DISCIPLINE: A successful organization requires the common effort of workers. Penalties should be applied judiciously to encourage this common effort.                                                                              
4. UNITY OF COMMAND: Workers should receive orders from only one manager.                                                                                              
5. UNITY OF DIRECTION: The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a common direction.                                                                                                        
6. SUBORDINATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTERESTS TO THE GENERAL INTERESTS: The interests of one person should not take priority over the interests of the organization as a whole.                                                                                                                                        
7. REMUNERATION: Many variables, such as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel, general business conditions, and success of the business, should be considered in determining a worker’s rate of pay.                                                                                                  
8. CENTRALIZATION: Fayol defined centralization as lowering the importance of the subordinate role. Decentralization is increasing the importance. The degree to which centralization or decentralization should be adopted depends on the specific organization in which the manager is working.                                                                                                                  
9. SCALAR CHAIN: Managers in hierarchies are part of a chain like authority scale. Each manager, from the first line supervisor to the president, possess certain amounts of authority. The President possesses the most authority; the first line supervisor the least. Lower level managers should always keep upper level managers informed of their work activities. The existence of a scalar chain and adherence to it are necessary if the organization is to be successful.                                                                                                    
10. ORDER: For the sake of efficiency and coordination, all materials and people related to a specific kind of work should be treated as equally as possible.                                                                          
11. EQUITY: All employees should be treated as equally as possible.                                                                                                                 
12. STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL: Retaining productive employees should always be a high priority of management. Recruitment and Selection Costs, as well as increased product-reject rates are usually associated with hiring new workers.                                                                                                 
13. INITIATIVE: Management should take steps to encourage worker initiative, which is defined as new or additional work activity undertaken through self direction.                                                    
14. (TEAM SPIRIT) ESPIRIT DE CORPS: Management should encourage harmony and general good feelings among employees.

Concept, Nature & Scope of Management

Definition:

According to F.W. Taylor

"Management is an art of knowing what is to be done and seeing that it is done in the best possible manner." (planning and controlling)

As there is no universally accepted definition for management, it is difficult to define it.

But a simple traditional definition, defines it as the "art of getting things done by others". This definition brings in two elements namely accomplishment of objectives, and direction of group activities towards the goal. The weaknesses of this definition is that firstly it uses the word "art", whereas management is not merely an art, but it is both art and science. Secondly, the definition does not state the various functions of a manager clearly.

Nature of Management:

Management Art or Science?

Management involves characteristics of both art and science. While certain aspects of management make it a science, certain others which involve application of skills make it an art. Every discipline of art is always backed by science which is basic knowledge of that art. Similarly, every discipline of science is complete only when it is used in practice for solving various kind of problems. Whereas under "science" one normally learns the "why" of a phenomenon, under "art" one learns the "how" of it. In the words of Robert H. Hilkert: "In the area of management, science and art are two sides of the same coin".

In the beginning of development of management knowledge, it was considered as an art. There was a jungle of management knowledge. Any one used it to get things done in his own way. But later by codifying and systemizing the management, it became a science as well as being an art.

Management as an art has the following characteristics:

• Just like other arts it has practical application. The knowledge of management should be learned and practiced by managers, just as medical or legal practitioners practice their respective sciences. In this sense, management is an art.
• The manager gains experience by continuous application of management knowledge. This experience helps them to develop more skills and abilities for translating management knowledge into practice.
• Application of management knowledge calls for innovativeness and creativity.
• The fourth reason to consider management as an art is that in many situations, theoretical knowledge of management may not be adequate or relevant for solving the problem. It may be because of complexity or unique nature of the problem.

Management as a Science

Management as a science has the following characteristics:

• Its principles, generalizations and concepts are systematically . In this case the manager can manage the situation or organization in a systematic and scientific manner.
• Its principles, generalizations and concepts are formulated on the basis of observation, research, analysis and experimentation, as is the case with the principles of other sciences.
• Like other sciences, management principles are also based on relationship of cause and effect. It states that same cause under similar circumstance will produce same effect. Suppose if workers are paid more (cause), the produce more (effect).
• Management principles are codified and systematic, and can be transferred from one to another and can be taught.
• Management principles are universally applicable to all types of organizations.

Management: A Profession

The following criteria identifies the statues of a profession to management:

• Profession is a body of specialized knowledge.
• Professional knowledge in systemized and codified form can be learned through formal education system.
• A profession emphasizes on having a central body to formulate a code of behavior for its members.
• A profession calls for rendering competent and specialized services to clients.
• A profession maintains the scientific attitude and commitment for discovering new ideas and upgrading in order to improve quality of service and level of efficiency provided to clients.
• A profession requires members to exercise restraint and self-discipline.

Management knowledge meets the first two criteria because it has grown into a systematic body of knowledge and also it can be acquired and learned through the formal education.

There is no minimum qualification prescribed either for getting entry in the management profession or for becoming members of it. In practice, whosoever manages in known as manager, irrespective of qualifications. Peter Drucker in support of this view says that "no greater damage could be done to our economy or to our society than to attempt to professionalize management by licensing managers, for instance, or by limiting access to management to people with a special academic degree."

Regarding professional approach, a manager has to continuously strive for discovering new ideas, relationships and concepts and act in a dynamic and innovative manner to cope with the changing environment. Even so, managers are not respected as other professionals like doctors, advocates and chartered accountants.

Levels of Management:

Top Level of Management

It consists of board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for an enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions.

Middle Level of Management

The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle level. They are responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. In small organization, there is only one layer of middle level of management but in big enterprises, there may be senior and junior middle level management.

Lower Level Management

Lower level is also known as supervisory / operative level of management. It consists of supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent etc. According to R.C. Davis, “Supervisory management refers to those executives whose work has to be largely with personal oversight and direction of operative employees”. In other words, they are concerned with direction and controlling function of management.

Objectives of Advertising

• To make immediate sale
• To notify about product availability
• To guide sales force by building awareness of product or service among retailers
• To introduce a new price
• To create a fame for service, reliability, credibility
• To maximize market share
• To modify existing product or service appeals
• To inform about the availability of the product and let customer remain up to date
• To develop international market, if any
• To increase about the frequency of the product usage
• To build brand equity
• To effect impulsive buying action
• To increase the number of target audience

Importance of Advertising

1. Advertising is important for the customers
   Just imagine television or a newspaper or a radio channel without an advertisement! No, no one can any day imagine this. Advertising plays a very important role in customers life. Customers are the people who buy the product only after they are made aware of the products available in the market. If the product is not advertised, no customer will come to know what products are available and will not buy the product even if the product was for their benefit. One more thing is that advertising helps people find the best products for themselves, their kids, and their family. When they come to know about the range of products, they are able to compare the products and buy so that they get what they desire after spending their valuable money. Thus, advertising is important for the customers.
2. Advertising is important for the seller and companies producing the products
   Yes, advertising plays very important role for the producers and the sellers of the products, because
   • Advertising helps increasing sales
   • Advertising helps producers or the companies to know their competitors and plan accordingly to meet up the level of competition.
   • If any company wants to introduce or launch a new product in the market, advertising will make a ground for the product. Advertising helps making people aware of the new product so that the consumers come and try the product.
   • Advertising helps creating goodwill for the company and gains customer loyalty after reaching a mature age.
   • The demand for the product keeps on coming with the help of advertising and demand and supply become a never ending process.
3. Advertising is important for the society
   Advertising helps educating people. There are some social issues also which advertising deals with like child labour, liquor consumption, girl child killing, smoking, family planning education, etc. thus, advertising plays a very important role in society.

Advertising

Advertising is paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of goods, services, ideas, concepts by a sponsor.

It is one of the powerful elements in the mix of promotion. It is known that though advertising is not personal in character, but can create profound influence in persuading prospects to customers.

Types of Advertising:

Television advertising / Music in advertising

The television commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices television networks charge for commercial airtime during popular events. 

Infomercials

An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word "infomercial" is a portmanteau of the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals.

Radio advertising

Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online.

Online advertising

Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads,Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.

New media

Technological development and economic globalization favors the emergence of new communication channels and new techniques of commercial messaging.

Press advertising

Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.

Billboard advertising

Billboards are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.

In-store advertising

In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (aka POP – Point of Purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.

 Sheltered Outdoor Advertising

This type of advertising opens the possibility of combining outdoor with indoor advertising by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space exerts a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoor, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.

Celebrity branding

This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. 

Consumer-generated advertising

This involves getting consumers to generate advertising through blogs, websites, wikis and forums, for some kind of payment.

Aerial advertising

Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example.

Factor Influencing Consumer Buying Behavior

Several factors determine what consumer buys, when buys, their choices and preferences.

Factors influencing consumer buying behaviour are mentioned below: 

• Personal factors unique to a particular person. It includes demographic factors like age, sex, gender, race, etc., lifestyle of the individual and sometimes the situation.
• Social factor or cultural factors. These factors includes role of the individual in the family, family pattern, reference group, opinion leader, social class, economic status, etc.
• Psychological factors that operate within an individual. It may be consists of perceptions, attitudes, motives, learning, confidence, experience, personality, etc.

Consumer Buying Decision Making Process

Problem Recognition

: A buyer identifies the problem when he or she becomes aware of the desired state and actual state. For example, a man who has been driving Bike

while he goes to office starts feeling the need of a car. He recognizes that a difference exists between the desired state and the actual condition. So, he therefore decides to buy a car.

Information Search:  After recognizing the problem or need, a buyer searches for the product information that can resolve the problem. For example, the man may search for different types and brands of cars. He acquires information over time. There are two types of information search. In the internal search, He searches his memory for cars. In case of necessary information is not retrieved from memory, he seeks additional information through external search which consists of friends, relatives and the media.

Evaluation of Alternatives: A successful information search results a number of brands that a buyer views as possible alternatives. This group of products/ services is known as evoked set of buyer. For example an evoked set of cars might include those made by Hyundai, TATA, Ford, BMW, Mercedes etc. Various objective and subjective characteristics that are important to the buyer are used to evaluate the alternative options.

The buyer also assigns a certain degree of significance to each criterion. Using the criteria for evaluation, a buyer rates and ranks alternative brands. In case the buyer is not able to decide the brand after evaluation, further information search may be necessary.

Purchase: In the Purchase stage, the buyer chooses the product or service to be bought. The availability of product or service may be influenced by the brand which may be purchased. For example, if the brand ranked highest is unavailable, then the buyer may purchase the brand which is ranked second.

Post Purchase Behaviour: After the purchase is done, the buyer begins evaluating the product to ascertain if its actual performance meets the desired expectations. After buying a product, a buyer thinks whether he or she has made the correct decision.  This is called cognitive dissonance. It is very important to clarify some necessary points about consumer buying decision process.

 First, the actual act of buying is only one stage in the process, and usually not the first stage. Second, all consumers do not have to necessarily pass through all stages in the buying process. Buyers may end the process at any stage. Last but not the least, all decisions taken by consumers do not always include all these five stages mentioned above.

Sales Promotion

Sales promotion is one of the five aspects of the promotional mix. (The other 4 parts of the promotional mix are advertising, personal selling, direct marketing and publicity/public relations. Media and non-media marketing communication are employed for a pre-determined, limited time to increase consumer demand, stimulate market demand or improve product availability. Examples include contests, coupons, freebies, loss leaders, point of purchase displays,premiums, prizes, product samples, and rebates

Sales promotions can be directed at either the customer, sales staff, or distribution channel members (such as retailers). Sales promotions targeted at the consumer are called consumer sales promotions. 

Sales promotions targeted at retailers and wholesale are called trade sales promotions. 

Sales promotion includes several communications activities that attempt to provide added value or incentives to consumers, wholesalers, retailers, or other organizational customers to stimulate immediate sales. These efforts can attempt to stimulate product interest, trial, or purchase. Examples of devices used in sales promotion include coupons, samples, premiums, point-of-purchase (POP) displays, contests, rebates, and sweepstakes.

Consumer sales promotion techniques:

• Price deal: A temporary reduction in the price, such as 50% off.
• Loyal Reward Program: Consumers collect points, miles, or credits for purchases and redeem them for rewards.
• Cents-off deal: Offers a brand at a lower price. Price reduction may be a percentage marked on the package.
• Price-pack deal: The packaging offers a consumer a certain percentage more of the product for the same price (for example, 25 percent extra).
• Coupons: coupons have become a standard mechanism for sales promotions.
• Loss leader: the price of a popular product is temporarily reduced below cost in order to stimulate other profitable sales
• Free-standing insert (FSI): A coupon booklet is inserted into the local newspaper for delivery.
• On-shelf couponing: Coupons are present at the shelf where the product is available.
• Checkout dispensers: On checkout the customer is given a coupon based on products purchased.
• On-line couponing: Coupons are available online. Consumers print them out and take them to the store.
• Mobile couponing: Coupons are available on a mobile phone. Consumers show the offer on a mobile phone to a salesperson for redemption.
• Online interactive promotion game: Consumers play an interactive game associated with the promoted product.
• Rebates: Consumers are offered money back if the receipt and barcode are mailed to the producer.
• Contests/sweepstakes/games: The consumer is automatically entered into the event by purchasing the product.

Trade sales promotion techniques:

• Trade allowances: short term incentive offered to induce a retailer to stock up on a product.
• Dealer loader: An incentive given to induce a retailer to purchase and display a product.
• Trade contest: A contest to reward retailers that sell the most product.
• Point-of-purchase displays: Used to create the urge of "impulse" buying and selling your product on the spot.
• Training programs: dealer employees are trained in selling the product.
• Push money: also known as "spiffs". An extra commission paid to retail employees to push products.

Brand Management Process

Brand Management Process:

• Identifying/defining your most important customers
• Understanding what motivates your customers and what could cause them to choose your brand over your competitors’ brands
• Carefully selecting a brand position that could provide your organization with marketplace advantages
• Translating that position to a strong and consistent brand identity, including:

             -  Intuitive brand architecture

             -  Strong name and icon 

             -  Tagline that succinctly reinforces brand promise

• Developing brand messaging including an elevator speech
• Educating employees about the brand promise, elevator speech and identity standards and giving them the incentives, tools and training to become effective brand champions
• Developing an integrated launch and ongoing marketing plan
• Reinforcing your brand’s promise at each point of customer contact
• Measuring the ongoing equity of the brand and making adjustments as necessary 

Brand Management Responsibilities 

• Monitor, measure and manage brand equity/strength
• Increase brand awareness, relevant differentiation, value, accessibility and emotional connection
• Develop brand plan
• Monitor progress against brand plan
• Be responsible for results against brand plan
• Drive brand understanding and support throughout the organization
• Champion/drive initiatives that support delivery of the brand promise
• Brand messaging – elevator speech, tagline, campaign themes, proof points, etc.
• Manage the brand architecture
• Maintain brand identity consistency
• Chair the brand identity council/team/board
• Help determine identities for new brands/sub-brands
• Anticipate and accommodate new brand identity needs

Brand Management

Definition- A function of marketing that uses techniques to increase the perceived value of a product line or brand over time. Effective brand management enables the price of products to go up and builds loyal customers through positive brand associations and images or a strong awareness of the brand. Developing a strategic plan to maintain brand equity or gain brand value requires a comprehensive understanding of the brand, its target market and the company's overall vision.

Or

Brand management is a communication function that includes analysis and planning on how that brand is positioned in the market, which target public the brand is targeted at, and maintaining a desired reputation of the brand. Developing a good relationship with target publics is essential for brand management. Tangible elements of brand management include the product itself; look, price, the packaging, etc. The intangible elements are the experience that the consumer takes away from the brand, and also the relationship that they have with that brand.

Or

The process of maintaining, improving, and upholding a brand so that the name is associated with positive results. Brand management involves a number of important aspects such as cost, customer satisfaction, in-store presentation, and competition. Brand management is built on a marketing foundation, but focuses directly on the brand and how that brand can remain favorable to customers. Proper brand management can result in higher sales of not only one product, but on other products associated with that brand. For example, if a customer loves Pillsbury biscuits and trust the brand, he or she is more likely to try other products offered by the company such as chocolate chip cookies.

Advertising Campaigns

Advertising campaigns are the groups of advertising messages which are similar in nature. They share same messages and themes placed in different types of medias at some fixed times. The time frames of advertising campaigns are fixed and specifically defined.

Objective of an advertising campaign :

• Inform people about your product
• Convince them to buy the product
• Make your product available to the customers

Process of making an advertising campaign :

1. Research: first step is to do a market research for the product to be advertised. One needs to find out the product demand, competitors, etc.
2. Know the target audience: one need to know who are going to buy the product and who should be targeted.
3. Setting the budget: the next step is to set the budget keeping in mind all the factors like media, presentations, paper works, etc which have a role in the process of advertising and the places where there is a need of funds.
4. Deciding a proper theme: the theme for the campaign has to be decided as in the colors to be used, the graphics should be similar or almost similar in all ads, the music and the voices to be used, the designing of the ads, the way the message will be delivered, the language to be used, jingles, etc.
5. Selection of media: the media or number of Medias selected should be the one which will reach the target customers.
6. Media scheduling: the scheduling has to be done accurately so that the ad will be visible or be read or be audible to the targeted customers at the right time.
7. Executing the campaign: finally the campaign has to be executed and then the feedback has to be noted.

Mostly used media tools are print media and electronic media. Print media includes newspaper, magazines, pamphlets, banners, and hoardings. Electronic media includes radio, television, e-mails, sending message on mobiles, and telephonic advertising. 

All campaigns do not have fix duration. Some campaigns are seasonal and some run all year round. All campaigns differ in timings. Some advertising campaigns are media based, some are area based, some are product based, and some are objective based.

Advertising Plan

An advertising plan is a basic subset of a marketing plan. It helps a business to establish smaller goals as part of a larger marketing strategy. For example, an advertising plan may be created for a few months to a year, where an overall marketing strategy may aim to corner a portion of the market in 5 years. The plan includes objectives, reports, market research, pitches, media outlets, and a budget. When it is completed, an advertising plan should be a report that can be proposed to a business and also a day-to-day schedule to help you stay on track during an advertising campaign. 

Steps of an advertising Plan:

• Choose the demographics that you want to target. Study the people who are using your business and products now and the people you want to attract. Include some data of advertising channels that are most often frequented by the target demographics. This data will support your advertising decisions.
• Choose your media channels. You will probably choose a mixture of print publications, online, radio, television and other advertising. After establishing the type of advertising, you should list the businesses or places that you believe will best fit your demographic and goals. List any options that you have negotiated and decided upon.
• Choose your creative strategies. Usually a graphic designer, voice or acting talent and other creative strategies are designed. In some cases, you will need to come up with an advertising pitch that you believe will promote your goals. Choose your talent, or make a plan for choosing it as the publication or air date draws closer.
• Create a calendar. Using a spreadsheet or calendar program make a weekly and monthly plan that helps you achieve your advertising goals.
• Create a budget. This should list all your advertising options, their cost, who you pay and any other expenses.